The sale and use of marijuana [JURIST news archive] remains a controversial issue in the US and abroad. Earlier this month, the Vermont State Legislature approved a bill that replaces criminal penalties with civil fines [JURIST report] for possession of up to an ounce of marijuana and up to five grams of hashish. Also this month, the Supreme Court of California ruled [JURIST report] unanimously that local governments may outlaw medical marijuana dispensaries, upholding a ban enacted by the city of Riverside in 2010. In February the Michigan Supreme Court ruled that the private sale of medical marijuana is illegal [JURIST report]. Additionally, the top court in Ontario upheld Canada's general ban on marijuana [JURIST report]. In December an Arizona judge ruled that the state's medical marijuana law is constitutional [JURIST report] and instructed the state to permit dispensaries to open. In November lawmakers in Uruguay proposed legislation for state-regulated marijuana [JURIST report]. Also that month Washington [Initiative 502, PDF] and Colorado [Amendment 64, PDF] legalized the drug [JURIST report] via state ballot initiatives. Similarly, medical marijuana was legalized in Massachusetts [Harvard Crimson report] for the first time, as over 60 percent of voters approved a similar referendum [Petition 11-11, PDF].

Adoption rights of same-sex couples [JURIST news archive] have created controversy in several courts worldwide. In February, Puerto Rico's Supreme Court upheld a law banning same-sex couples from adopting children. Earlier that week, the European Court of Human Rights ruled that a woman in a same-sex relationship could adopt her partner's biological child [JURIST report]. Also in February, the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany ruled that same-sex couples in a civil union can legally adopt [JURIST report] the non-biological children of their partners. Similarly, the Northern Ireland High Court [official website] held [JURIST report] in October that a law permitting adoption only by heterosexual married couples or single individuals, regardless of their sexual orientation, is unlawful. Also in October, the Alabama Court of Civil Appeals [official website] upheld a law limiting marriage as a union between and one man and one woman. That ruling effectively barred a woman from adopting her female partner's child [JURIST report].

Under Heller, the Second Amendment to the United States Constitution guarantees the right of individual citizens to keep and bear commonly used firearms for all lawful purposes. The individual right to employ commonly-used firearms for selfdefense is "the central component" of the Second Amendment guarantee."

This is the latest development in the controversial topic of gun control [JURIST news archive] in the US. The challenged laws were passed [JURIST report] in March following the shooting [WSJ backgrounder] at an elementary school in Newtown, Connecticut. Last month, Maryland and Connecticut [JURIST reports] approved new gun control laws. In March, President Barack Obama urged [JURIST report] Congress to pass three bills which would require background checks for all private gun sales, renew a grant to improve schools security programs and make the act of buying a weapon for someone barred from owning one a federal crime. Also in March, US Attorney General Eric Holder spoke before Congress [JURIST report] urging passage of gun control measures, including universal background checks and a ban on high-capacity magazines and military style assault weapons.

France is the latest country to approve same-sex marriage [JURIST backgrounder] in its jurisdiction. Earlier this week, Brazil effectively legalized [JURIST report] same-sex marriage in a court ruling that prevented notaries from denying to perform ceremonies for same-sex couples. Also this month, same-sex marriage legislation was approved in the US states of Minnesota, Delaware and Rhode Island [JURIST reports]. Last month Ireland announced it would hold a referendum [JURIST report] on same-sex marriage. In March, the US Supreme Court heard oral arguments in two same-sex marriage cases regarding the Section 3 of the Defense of Marriage Act and Proposition 8 [JURIST reports], with decisions expected next month.

In March the Arkansas legislature voted to override [JURIST report] Governor Mike Beebe's veto of the Human Heartbeat Protection Act. In February the Arkansas legislature voted to override a veto [JURIST report] of a 20-week abortion ban. Numerous states have changed their abortion laws recently to impose more restrictions on the availability of abortions, leading to several legal challenges. In December a state judge in Georgia enjoined a law [JURIST report] banning doctors from providing abortions for women more than 20 weeks into gestation, which would have gone into effect in January. Montana voters in November passed a referendum [JURIST report] requiring facilities and doctors to inform parents of minors 16 to 48 hours before a planned abortion procedure on the minor. Also that month the US Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit [official website] heard oral arguments [JURIST report] on a challenge to Arizona's law which, like Arkansas and Georgia's laws, bans abortions after 20 weeks. Planned Parenthood [advocacy website] also sued Texas [JURIST report] in October claiming that its law preventing state funding from going to any clinics affiliated with providing abortions violates another state law.

France will become the latest country to join a growing trend toward legalizing same-sex marriage [JURIST backgrounder]. Earlier this week Brazil's National Council of Justice ruled that notaries public cannot refuse to perform same-sex marriage ceremonies, effectively legalizing same-sex marriage in Brazil [JURIST report]. Earlier in May same-sex marriage legislation was approved in the US states of Minnesota, Delaware and Rhode Island [JURIST reports]. Last month Ireland announced it would hold a referendum [JURIST report] on same-sex marriage. In March the US Supreme Court heard oral arguments in two same-sex marriage cases, with decisions expected next month.

The Syrian Civil War [JURIST backgrounder] erupted in 2011 when opposition groups first began protesting the regime of Syrian President Bashar al-Assad [BBC profile]. The increasingly bloody nature of the conflict has put pressure on the international community to intervene. In May the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Navi Pillay called upon the international community [JURIST report] to find a solution to the conflict in Syria and ensure that those responsible for human rights violations are held accountable. Last month Assad issued a decree reducing prison terms [JURIST report] for a number of rebel prisoners, but the move was dismissed as a "meaningless gesture" by activists. Also in April HRW accused the Syrian Air Force of deliberately targeting civilians [JURIST report] in air strikes in opposition-controlled areas. In March HRW accused Syria's military of using widely-banned cluster munitions [JURIST report] against civilians. In February the UN said that both the Syrian government and the anti-government rebels are committing war crimes [JURIST report]. Earlier that month Pillay reported that the death toll after two years [JURIST report] of armed conflict approached 70,000. In January more than 50 countries asked the UN Security Council to refer the situation in Syria to the ICC [JURIST report].

Earlier this month Senegal and Chad signed an agreement [JURIST report] allowing Senegalese judges to carry out investigations in Chad in preparation for the prosecution of Habre. Habre fled to Senegal after being deposed in 1990 and denies charges of killing and torturing tens of thousands of his opponents after coming to power in 1982. The AU began talks with Senegal to come up with a plan for Habre's trial after the International Court of Justice (ICJ) ruled [JURIST report] in July that Senegal must either try Habre promptly or extradite him to Belgium for trial. The court's legally binding order also noted that Senegal had failed to make serious efforts to prosecute Habre, who has been been under house arrest there since 2005. In March lawyers for the Belgian government asked [JURIST report] the ICJ to force Senegal to bring Habre to trial in Belgium. In July 2011 Senegal reversed its decision to deport Habre [JURIST report] back to Chad after UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Navi Pillay warned of possible torture. That month Pillay issued the plea [JURIST report] to stay Habre's deportation to Chad after the nation's courts sentenced him to death in absentia.

Morales is the first indigenous president to be elected in Bolivia and the theme of his presidency [JURIST report] has been advancing the interest of the majority indigenous community. On June 8, 2010, the Bolivian National Congress approved [JURIST report] legislation that would create an independent justice system for indigenous communities. In March 2009, Morales began redistributing land [JURIST report] to indigenous farmers under power given to him by the country's new constitution. Bolivia's new constitution went into effect in February 2009, placing more power in the hands of the country's majority. It also created seats in Congress for minority indigenous groups. In August 2008, Morales won a referendum to continue his presidency, which he personally proposed in a bid to legitimize his campaign [JURIST reports] for the constitutional changes.

Hungary has been criticized recently [JURIST op-ed] for changes to its constitution. Just last month an EU Commissioner spoke out against Hungary's failure to reinstate judges and prosecutors who had been forced into early retirement. More changes to the Hungarian constitution have included restrictions on the homeless [JURIST report], increased control of the media and a strict, narrow definition of family. The new laws were controversial even when they were passed [JURIST report], and have been subject to ongoing scrutiny. In February Hungary's Constitutional Court struck down [JURIST report] a law that outlines how churches are given official designation, finding that it was too political. In January the court struck down an electoral law [JURIST report] requiring voters to register to vote at least two weeks before elections in 2014.

In March the Arkansas legislature voted to override [JURIST report] Governor Mike Beebe's veto of the Human Heartbeat Protection Act. In February the Arkansas Senate also voted to override a veto [JURIST report]. Numerous states have changed their abortion laws recently to impose more restrictions on the availability of abortions, leading to several legal challenges. In December a state judge in Georgia enjoined a law [JURIST report] banning doctors from providing abortions for women more than 20 weeks into gestation, which would have gone into effect in January. Montana voters in November passed a referendum [JURIST report] requiring facilities and doctors to inform parents of minors 16 to 48 hours before a planned abortion procedure on the minor. Also that month the US Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit [official website] heard oral arguments [JURIST report] on a challenge to Arizona's law which, like Arkansas and Georgia's laws, bans abortions after 20 weeks. Planned Parenthood [advocacy website] also sued Texas [JURIST report] in October claiming that its law preventing state funding from going to any clinics affiliated with providing abortions violates another state law.

In January 2010 an immigration judge granted [JURIST report] the Romeikes asylum, ruling that German laws against homeschooling [HSLDA backgrounder] gave the family a well-founded fear of persecution. In the opinion, Judge Lawrence Burman described homeschoolers as a distinct group of people who have a "principled opposition to government policy" that would face persecution both because of their religious beliefs and because they were "members of a particular social group." The Romeike family fled Germany [TIME report] in 2008. Burman's opinion was critical of German policy regarding educational freedom, calling the country's laws against homeschooling a violation of basic human rights.

The plaintiffs filed suit for copyright infringement against Google in 2007 concurrently with Viacom [corporate website], which owns Comedy Central, MTV and VH1. Viacom sought $1 billion in damages as well as an injunction against YouTube for clips that were posted on the website without authorization. However, in April the US District Court for the Southern District of New York dismissed [JURIST report] Viacom's suit. The court held that YouTube was protected by the Digital Millennium Copyright Act's (DMCA) "safe harbor" provisions, which shelter service providers from the infringing activities of their customers by shifting liability to individual infringing customers. Viacom previously brought a similar suit [JURIST report] against YouTube in 2007, but was unsuccessful.

The UN has shown continuous support for Guatemala's efforts to try Rios Mont. In March UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Navi Pillay lauded [JURIST report] Guatemala for beginning the trial of Rios Montt and former intelligence chief Jose Rodriguez Sanchez, both of whom stand accused of committing genocide and crimes against humanity. In April Judge Patricia Flores, who recused herself from the case in 2011, halted the trial [JURIST report] and attempted to invalidate a year-and-a-half of court proceedings once she was reinstated last month. However, Barrios continued the trial [JURIST report] against Rios Montt despite the prior ruling annulling the case. Montt was ordered to stand trial multiple times for alleged genocide and crimes against humanity, and the trial started on March 19. In January a Guatemalan judge ordered [JURIST report] Rios Montt to stand trial. Last May Flores issued a second order [JURIST report] demanding Rios Montt stand trial after ruling that a sufficient amount of evidence had been mounted against him, necessitating his testimony before a court of law. Rios Montt was protected [JURIST report] from prosecution until last January because he was serving as a member of congress, an immunity that had been lifted due to his departure from the legislature.

Wells Fargo [JURIST news archive] has been involved in many legal battles recently. The US government filed a lawsuit against the bank in October, alleging that Wells Fargo deliberately concealed [JURIST report] the nature of mortgages that were insured by the federal government, ultimately costing the government hundreds of millions of dollars in insurance claims. In August the company was assessed a $6.5 million fine [JURIST report] by the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) for improperly selling high-risk mortgage securities to investors during the housing market crash in 200. In July the Ninth Circuit dismissed a lawsuit against several banks, including Wells Fargo, that accused the banks of price-fixing [JURIST report]. In March the SEC filed a subpoena enforcement action[JURIST report] against Wells Fargo to force the company to hand over documents connected to the company's sale of nearly $60 billion in residential mortgage-backed securities to investors.

The Syrian Civil War [JURIST backgrounder] has been ongoing since 2011 when opposition groups first began protesting the regime of Syrian President Bashar al-Assad [BBC profile], and the increasingly bloody nature of the conflict has put pressure on the international community to intervene. In response to a series of massacres carried out against civilians earlier this week, UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Navi Pillay [official profile] called upon the international community [JURIST report] to find a solution to the conflict in Syria and ensure that those responsible for human rights violations are held accountable. Last month Assad issued a decree reducing prison terms [JURIST report] for a number of rebel prisoners, but the move was dismissed as a "meaningless gesture" by activists. Also in April Human Rights Watch (HRW) [advocacy website] accused the Syrian Air Force of deliberately targeting civilians [JURIST report] in air strikes in opposition-controlled areas. In March HRW accused Syria's military of using widely-banned cluster munitions [JURIST report] against civilians. In February the UN said that both the Syrian government and the anti-government rebels are committing war crimes [JURIST report]. Earlier that month Pillay reported that the death toll after two years [JURIST report] of armed conflict approached 70,000.

This ruling makes Brazil the fifteenth country to legalize same-sex marriage [JURIST backgrounder]. The issue continues to be controversial both in the US and internationally. Earlier in May, same-sex marriage legislation was approved in the US states of Minnesota, Delaware and Rhode Island [JURIST reports]. Last month France's Parliament approved a bill to legalize same-sex marriage and adoption by same-sex couples. All that remains is for the bill to be cleared by the nation's Constitutional Council and signed into law by President Francois Hollande. Also in April Ireland announced it would hold a referendum [JURIST report] on same-sex marriage. In March, the US Supreme Court heard oral arguments in United States v. Windsor [JURIST report], the second of two cases the court heard that week on same-sex marriage. In that argument, the court considered the validity of Section 3 of the Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA) [text; JURIST news archive], a federal law that recognizes only opposite-sex marriages for federal benefits purposes, despite state law on the issue.

North Dakota has been at the recent forefront of the ongoing debate on reproductive rights [JURIST backgrounder]. Wednesday's lawsuit supplements a previous challenge against a 2011 North Dakota law [HB 1297, PDF] restricting drug-induced abortions, which a state judge recently said he would strike down [JURIST report]. In April North Dakota Governor Jack Dalrymple [official website] signed a measure [JURIST report] banning abortions after 20 weeks based on the controversial premise that a fetus can feel pain at that point. Dalrymple also signed two other bills into law, HB 1305 and HB 1456 [text, PDF], along with SB 2305. The CRR is also planning challenges to those provisions.

The international community has become increasingly concerned with forced labor issues and human rights abuses that have led to the increase of refugees leaving Eritrea [JURIST news archive]. In January Human Rights Watch (HRW) [advocacy website] alleged that the Eritrean government's national service program requires all able-bodied men and women serve indefinitely as conscripts for the government, and it assigns some of these conscripts to state-owned construction companies as forced laborers [JURIST report]. In June UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Navi Pillay condemned Eritrea [JURIST report] for its failure to address the human rights violations in the country. These sentiments came on the heels of the US State Department [official website] Trafficking in Persons Report 2009 [text], which added Eritrea and five other countries to its list of countries with the worst human trafficking records.

The Syrian Civil War [JURIST backgrounder] has been going on since 2011 when opposition groups first began protesting the regime of Syrian President Bashar al-Assad [BBC profile], and the increasingly bloody nature of the conflict has put pressure on the international community to intervene. Last month Assad issued a decree reducing prison terms [JURIST report] for a number of rebel prisoners, but the move was dismissed as a "meaningless gesture" by activists. Also in April Human Rights Watch (HRW) [advocacy website] accused the Syrian Air Force of deliberately targeting civilians [JURIST report] in air strikes in opposition-controlled areas. In March HRW accused Syria's military of using widely-banned cluster munitions [JURIST report] against civilians. In February the UN said that both the Syrian government and the anti-government rebels are committing war crimes [JURIST report]. Earlier that month Pillay reported that the death toll after two years [JURIST report] of armed conflict approached 70,000. In January more than 50 countries asked the UN Security Council to refer the situation in Syria to the ICC.

We already warned against the extensive requirements contained in this law for NCOs allegedly "engaging in political activities," which could infringe on the right of human rights defenders to publically raise human rights issues and conduct advocacy work. Defenders should be able to participate in public affairs by raising issues of public interest in a critical way, irrespective of where their funding comes from. This type of work should not been seen as a political activity but as an essential component of an open and democratic society.

The Russian Parliament approved the law [JURIST report] last July, with many critics arguing that President Vladimir Putin [official website, in Russian] is taking steps backwards toward a more restrictive government. Putin signed the bill into law a week later amongst opponents' claims its purpose is to curb free speech. The government has enforced the law [JURIST report] despite criticism, raiding the Moscow headquarters of Human Rights Watch (HRW), Transparency International and Amnesty International [advocacy websites] in March. Last month, HRW and AI released reports criticizing the limiting of free speech since Putin's return to the presidency.

The IRS apologized [Reuters report] last Friday for what they called "inappropriate" scrutiny. At a White House news conference the following Monday, US President Barack Obama [official website] called [press brief] the IRS actions "outrageous," stating that the agency must operate with "absolute integrity."

In November, a Turkish court opened a trial in absentia [JURIST report] for former Israeli military commanders accused of killing nine Turkish citizens during the 2010 raid. The Turkish judge began the proceedings with testimony from people who were on board the flotilla, as well as from relatives of the deceased. Prosecutors have demanded life in prison for the Israeli commanders involved in the May 2010 raid to enforce a naval blockade of the Gaza Strip. The case illustrates tension between Turkey and Israel, which have previously maintained close diplomatic ties. Israel has criticized the trial of the four Israeli commanders, dismissing the proceedings as politically motivated. Hundreds of protestors showed up outside the courthouse to voice their opposition to the actions of these commanders. Turkey has demanded an end to the Gaza blockade, a formal apology and compensation for the victims and their family.

Bahrain has imprisoned numerous activists in the wake of the 2011 protests and banned all protests [JURIST report] effective October 2012. In March 13 pro-democracy activists were sentenced [JURIST report] to 10 years in jail. Also in March the Bahrain Higher Criminal Court acquitted two police officers [JURIST report] in the shooting death of a Shiite protester during the nation's uprising. In February a Bahrain police officer was sentenced to seven years [JURIST report] in prison for fatally shooting a protester. In January a court in Bahrain released [JURIST report] human rights activist Sayed Yousif Al-Muhafda on bail pending trial for charges of spreading false news to harm security. Also in January the highest Bahraini appellate court upheld the convictions [JURIST report] of 13 prominent pro-democracy protestors convicted by military tribunal in 2011 on charges of plotting to overthrow the monarchy.

The time period during Montt's rule was one of the bloodiest parts of the Guatemala Civil War [PBS timeline; JURIST news archives], in which more than 200,000 people were killed over 36 years. Montt's trial was delayed last month [JURIST report] when an annulment was ordered by the Constitutional Court and the case was transferred to another judge to determine whether defense evidence had been incorporated properly. This ruling came days after the original judge on the case had ignored a prior ruling [JURIST report] annulling the case and began the trial anyway. The UN in March had commended Guatemala [JURIST report] for beginning his long-awaited trial, as it marked the first time ever that a former head of state was tried for genocide by a national tribunal. The former dictator was ordered to stand trial [JURIST report] in January for genocide and crimes against humanity.